1. Bhamaha on the
importance of poetry.Criticism & Theory
a. Composition
of good poetry makes one capable in the pursuit of dharma, artha Kama and moksa. It also confers pleasure and fame.
b. Knowledge of
Sastras possessed by one who is not a poet is like the pauper’s charitableness,
the eunuch’s dexterity in arms, and the fool’s self-confidence.
c. What is
wealth without modesty? What is night without the moon? What is cleverness of
speech without the capacity to compose good literary works?
d. Even the
dull-witted can learn Sastras with the help of a teacher. But poetry is for
whom who has a natural capacity.
e. Even to those
who have passed away to svarga but who have composed good literary works there
surely exists a body consisting of their works which is both beautiful and free
from disease.
f. Further as
long as his imperishable fame continues he continues to occupy a position among
the devas. Therefore the wise one who aims at fame whish shall last as long as
the world directs his endeavours towards the essentials of poetry.
g. The desire to
compose kavya should be entertained after learning grammar and the meaning of
works and after having served the masters therein and after having studied
other kavyas.
h. Never shall
be spoken a word which is faulty. By a work which is bad, one gets a bad name,
as by a bad son—vilakshana hi kavyena dututeneva nintyate.
i. Not being an
author does not lead to evil or disease or punishment. But being a bad author
is, according to the wise, nothing less than death.
2.
Alankaras—Sabdalankara and Arthalankara
Bhamaha then
speaks about two types of Alankaras—Sabdalankara and Arthalankara. [Mammata, another theoretician points out
that these two are not mutually exclusive. There are many cases in which both
occur. In fact, in practically all cases, with some ingenuity both can be
proved. In such cases the author’s intention is our guide whether the passage
can be considered as Sabdalankara or Arthalankara.]
Arthalankara.
Some
Alankarikas vehemently maintain that only Rupaka etc. constitute kavya’s
ornaments. A damsel’s face, though beautiful does not shine, if it should be
devoid of ornaments.
The
supporters of this school argue that the bratty of a kavya consists in its rasa
which depends on vibhavas. These result from the meaning of words.
Sabdalankara
Supporters
of this school maintain that the proper disposition of nouns and verbs
constitutes the real ornaments of speech. It is language that first attracts one and
then the meaning arises. What enhances the beauty of words must be the real
ornament. So sabdalankara is superior to arthalankars. In fact, it is after the
words have functioned and produced a meaning, arthalankaras can come in.
3.
Classification of poetry based on structure and language.
Word and meaning
taken together constitute kavya. It is of 2 kinds—prose and verse.
4.
Classificatin based on subject-matter.
Kavyas are divided into four groups:-
a.
Real narratives of gods,
b.
Stories put together (fiction),
c.
Facts relating to arts, and
d.
Facts relating to science.
5. Classification
based on the nature of composition:-
1.
those that are built up by
divisions called Sargas;
2.
those that could be acted or exhibited on the stage;
3.
Akhyayikas;
4.
Kathas;
5.
Unconnected composition.
a. Those built by
Sargas.
a. Mahakavya is that which
is made up of Sargas. It treats the
big things and is big. It is devoid of vulgarity of expression. It has profound
significance and contains figures of speech and treats of the good.
b. It also consists of the
description of state-councils, messengers, travels, war and the good fortunes
of the hero. It contains also the five
sandhis. It does not require much commentary and has a prosperous ending.
Vagbhata in Kavyanusasana explains the Sandhis as follows:-
Mughasandhi: the seed of
the plot
Prathimughasandhi: The
sprouting of the seed partially visible.
Garbhasandhi: the full
development of the same culminating in the attainment of the desire or the
reverse.
Vimarsasandhi: the
investigation of the same.
Nirvahanasandhi: the
conclusion, the gathering up of the threads and bringing the plot to an
end.
c. While describing the four-fold objects of human existence [dharma,
artha, Kama, moksha] it relates
chiefly to the acquisition of wealth, conforms to the ways of the world and
contains separately the various rasas.
d. after having first placed the Nayaka by extolling his ancestry,
prowess, knowledge, etc. do not narrate his destruction with the object of
enhancing the glory of another. [Here
nayaka means prathinayaka. Bhamaha’s view is that if the poet first extols the
virtues of the person and enlist the support and sympathy of the audience, it
will be inharmonious to describe his destruction with the object of extolling
the virtues of the hero. Dandin attacks this view.]
b.
Those that could be acted or exhibited on the stage
Nataka consist of Dvipadi, Samya. Rasaka, Skandaka.
Akhyayikas
It
is a prose composition treating of an elevated subject-matter and characterised
by agreeable words, meaning and style in harmony with the context. It is
divided into parts called Ucchvasaas. It must contain forecasts of events on
appropriate occasions. It must be marked by some narratives of the poet’s own
creation. It must treat of the abduction of damsels, of war, of separation and
of success.
c. Kathas
In it the history of the hero is narrated by others and not by
himself.
d. Unconnected
composition
Anibadha consists only in
Gathas and verses. Unconnected composition means
that the various slokas are not connected with each other but deal with separate subjects.
There are
certain wise people who refer to another type of composition. It is called Vaidarbha. If a composition is devoid
of suggestion or cleverness of statement but is merely clear, smooth and
elegant, then it is called Vaidarbha.
Bhamaha condemns it as mere song but
Vamana in his Kavyalankarasutra recognises it as a distinct source of
enjoyment under the name Vaidarbhi.
There is mention about yet another composition
called Gaudiya. It consists of
elegant meaning but is not considered superior. But even Gaudiya becomes superior if it has alamkara and is devoid of
vulgarity. It must have full meaning and is simple.
6. Defects in poetic language.
Poets do not use
the language which has the following defects:-
Neyartha, Klista, Anyartha, Avacaka, Ayuktimat, and
Gudhasabdabhidhana.
a.
Neyartha—something from which proper
meaning has to be forcibly dragged out by clever people. It transcends the laws
of the language and is created by desire. The statement “auspicious as deceit” —[“Mayeva
Bhadra”]— is given as an example for neyartha by Bhamaha.[ the story of
Venudari, an asura and the son of Banasura is given as an example. Being an
asura maya or deceit might have been auspicious for him.]
b.
Klista—difficult—in which the meaning is
obstructed. No illustration is given.
c.
Anyartha—the accepted meaning is absent.
d.
Avacaka—‘him apahamitra dhara—clouds.
Hima= snow. Apah=enemy. Amitra=unfriendly. Dhara=carries. The enemy of snow is
fire. That which is unfriendly to fire is water. That which carries water is
clouds. The poet says that the sky is overcast by ‘himapahamitradhara’[clouds].
The expression is an example where the intended meaning is not clear.
e.
Ayuktimat—[unintelligent]--the
employment of clouds, winds, the moon, the bee, the cakravaka bird as messenger
is ayuktimat. The cloud messenger of course refers to Meghaduta of Kalidasa.
Those that cannot speak and those that are of indistinct utterance—how can
these, going to distant places perform their function as messengers. Such
descriptions do not fit in with reason.
f.
Gudhasabdabhidhana—poets never employ
words with hidden meanings. It does not even help the learned readers. Bhamaha
gives the following example: - “let the son
of fire [Lord Subramanya] destroy your enemies completely by his fierce, dazzlingly white and fearful glances.
He who is the bearer of mountains, the lord of the inhabitants of heaven and
has more than two eyes”. The word
‘asitha’ means not white, therefore ‘black’.
Four
other defects of speech are also mentioned—srutidusta [offensive to the ear],
arthadusta [of improper or objectionable meaning] kalpanadusta [objectionable
construction] and srutikasta [painful to the ear—cacaphony]
Just as a man who strings up a
garland uses one kind of flower because it is sweet-smelling and rejects
another because it is ordinary; knows that one (particular) flower will look
pretty when interwoven in a particular manner or that only a particular place
is suited for a particular flower. Just as such a man strings up discriminating
correctly—so should one who is composing a ‘kavya’ dispose of words with close
attention.
S. Sree Kumar
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